Psych Exam

Psychology is best defined as the science of behavior and mental processes. A cognitive psychologist would be most likely to design a study of the processes involved in decision making. Roy is interested in the details of the relationship between the brain structures and behavior. Roy is most likely a biological psychologist. The tasks of an industrial/organizational psychologist Include Improving supervisors' leadership skills, creating maximum-efficiency work groups, and suggesting other research-based programs designed to Increase efficiency.An Industrial/organizational psychologist doing cross-cultural work finds that In Country Llama, the workers have the highest Job satisfaction when they are rewarded for their accomplishments and quality of work. Country Llama probably has an Individualist culture. Dan performs the same experiment on several different occasions. Each time he performs the experiment, his data suggests different conclusions.The results from Dawn's experiment lac k reliability. Tall Is Interested In how alcohol consumption affects driving ability. He gives college students two, four, or six beers and then assure how many obstacles the students â€Å"hit† when they are in a driving simulator. The dependent variable is the number of obstacles hit. Dry. Summers investigated the influence of snacking on the onset of sleep in preschool children.One group of preschoolers ate a candy bar prior to bedtime, the other group ate nothing. Time until the onset of sleep was recorded for each child. In his experiment, eating or not eating the snack is the independent variable, and the time until the onset of sleep is the dependent variable. Cine operated the telephone switchboard t a large company, answering calls and directing them to the appropriate extensions.Remembering her introductory to psychology class, she decided that her situation was much like that of the dendrites and axons of neurons, because numerous people could call her at one time, but she could send out only one call at a time. Since Gordon sustained sever head trauma, he can no longer perform basic sewing tasks such as treading a needle. When he tries to play the piano, it is as if his fingers do not remember how to make the necessary movements, even for pieces he has known for years. Gordon most likely has damage to his cerebellum.

Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids: Balance of Essential Dietary Lipids For Good Health Essay

Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are important lipids which are obtained by the body mainly from fish, nut, vegetable and seed oils. These are biomolecules which should necessarily be incorporated in the diet for proper development, physical and behavioral functions in humans and animals. Our ability to synthesize these fatty acids or to interconvert them from other molecules is averted by the absence of enzymes required for their production of transformation in the body. This class of fatty acids is characterized by an even-numbered aliphatic chain starting from a carboxylic carbon and ending in a methyl group. The structure possesses two or more all-cis double bonds (polyunsaturated), the first of which is located three or six carbons away from the methyl (omega) carbon, hence the name, omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). They are also components of the phospholipid bilayer which envelope cells and organelles and are converted to other molecules such as eicosanoids including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes and other molecules implicated in immune reactions and signals. Also because of their health implications, they are subject of many research studies which aim to improve certain medical conditions, finding alternative sources and determining the optimum amounts in the diet for maximized health benefits. Lipids are a diverse class of biomolecules that are distinguished from the other classes because of their solubility in non polar solvents. This is due to the relatively large hydrophobic portion, usually consisting of an aliphatic hydrocarbon chain or ring attached to other functional groups. Being derivatives of carboxylic acids, they can undergo the same reactions typical of carboxylic acids. Thus, they may combine with alcohols to produce acyl compounds called esters. This very reaction allows for a diverse array of lipid structures. They find use as components of the cellular membranes aiding in protection and fluidity of the lipid bilayer; for energy storage because of their oxidation potential, because of this, they generate ample amounts of heat during fat burning; as body insulator because fat is a poor conductor of heat and prevents heat loss through the skin; as tools for molecular recognition between attached moieties (usually proteins) and the hydrophobic environment and protective covering of tissues among others. This large group is classified based on their structure as follows: (a) fatty acids and derivatives, (b) triacylglycerols, (c) wax esters, (d) phospholipids, (e) sphingolipids, and (f) isoprenoids (1). Triacylglycerols are esterification products of glycerol and three fatty acids. They are important components of adipose cells and are generally used as energy reserves. These molecules can undergo saponification reactions which produces carboxylate salts of soap. Phospholipids are the major structural components of membranes and find use as emulsifiers and surfactants due to the presence of a small polar head represented by the charged phosphate group. They may also be used as protective coverings of small molecules and probiotics (2). Wax esters are important components of leaves, fruit and animal fur. They may be combinations of many types of functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes and sterols. Sphingolipids are hydrophobic amino alcohols which are generally found composing animal membranes. It is also found covering the myelin sheath of neurons and assists in the transmission of messages in the brain. The isoprene ring is characteristic structure of isoprenoids. They are distinguished from other lipid classes by a five carbon unit, methylbutadiene. Examples of this class include essential oils which are mixtures of terpenes giving fruits and flowers their characteristic scent; carotenoids which are plant pigments that have the structure of tetraterpene, vitamin E, vitamin K, ubiquinone and some hormones (1). The omega-3 and omega-9 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are very important examples of lipids belonging to the first group. Examples of this class are aptly called essential fatty acids because these molecules need to be supplemented in the diet since our body lacks the enzymes for its synthesis. These include the short chain PUFA which are in turn precursors of other long chain omega-3 and omega-9 PUFA. Fatty acids that can be synthesized in by the body because of existing pathways and enzymes are referred to as non essential fatty acids (3). This paper discusses the structure of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, their biochemical functions, products and applications especially in maintaining good health and tackles current discoveries regarding their transformation to new molecules, issues concerning increased dietary intake and health prospects. Nomenclature and structure Fatty acids are synthesized in the liver and adipose cytoplasm through the fatty acid synthase and malonyl CoA a precursor. The chain increases by two carbons at each round of the reaction catalyzed by a unique enzyme complex until it forms a saturated fatty acid containing 16 carbons (palmitic acid). Through a series of elongation, reduction, dehydration and desaturation reactions various types of unsaturated fatty acids are produced. The reaction can incorporate double bonds up to the ninth carbon in mammalian system since the required enzymes are lacking and so we depend on plant sources for these essential fatty acids (3). Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids Fatty acids are called such because of the attachment of a long hydrophobic tail made of an aliphatic chain to a carboxylic acid functional group. This carboxylic carbon is referred to, in nomenclature, as the ? carbon. The chain is terminated by a methyl group assigned as the ? position. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are characterized by the presence of conjugated alkene groups in the cis confirmation. Thus, the position of the double bond can be indicated from the carboxylic carbon or from the methyl end. Thus, linoleic acid, a fatty acid with eighteen carbons and with two double bonds at carbons 9 and 12 from the carboxylic end can be designated as 18:2? 9,12. The dietary profile of the intake of fatty acids also determines the fatty acid composition of the phospholipid double layer. The latter can be assessed by determining the profiles of lipids from erythrocytes and plasma lipids, as well as identifying the membrane fluidity using analytical techniques (5). Another method of measuring membrane fluidity includes the use of various fluorescent markers which can tag protein molecules that are embedded in the lipid bilayer. The tendency of the colored markers to mix depends on the ability of the proteins to move through the membrane as time passes. The FRAP method, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, can also be related to the fluidity of membranes since it can measure lateral diffusion. This technique takes advantage of the ability of laser to bleach a pre marked fluorescent portion. As the membrane moves, color is regained and visualized using video equipment. Probes attached to the membrane can also be detected by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy (1). Arachidonic acid is also an important fatty acid component of phospholipids. The high degree of unsaturation ensures that the lipid bilayer is flexible and fluid even at slightly lower temperatures. The characteristic four conjugated double bonds prevent solidification at physiological temperatures and typically undergo alkene reactions such as oxidation. Its pKa is also suited to regulate its solubility in the aqueous and hydrophobic portions of the cell. In the salt form, it can be solvated by water but reverts back to its hydrophobic form once the salt reacts with free H+ in solution (6). Eicosanoid synthesis Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are also synthetic precursors of autocrine regulators called eicosanoids. Arachidonic acid is central to many pathways in the production of eicosanoids. These arachidonic acid-derived molecules, which include prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes, are difficult to analyze because of their limited concentrations and short periods of activity. The molecules are usually released as a response to immune reactions triggered by infections and antigen attack (1). In addition, they trigger molecular cascades which can affect even the expression of lipid metabolizing enzymes and present perils in metabolic disorders (7). The eicosanoid synthesis is mediated by two groups of enzymes and is achieved through the pathways utilizing cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase (8). Prostaglandins feature a cyclopentane ring in its structure with alcoholic functional groups at carbons in position eleven and fifteen. They are named as PGXy (prostaglandins) classified according to letters (symbolized by X) while y (subscript) indicated the number of double bonds found in the structure. Different letter classes are indicated by similarities in the functional group attached to the core structure but the group derived from arachidonic acid is one of the most significant. They are important molecules that signify inflammation reactions during infection and pain and are involved in muscular contractions during birthing events and ovulation. Apparently, they also have varying roles depending on the type of cell and tissue where they are produced (1). In fact, both omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA find importance in the synthesis of prostaglandins. The products from each, however, have different actions. Prostaglandins resulting from omega-3 PUFA have anti-inflammatory functions, while that synthesized from omega-6 are inflammatory. Thus, the ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is important because these molecules compete for the same enzymes and the synthesis products should complement each other (9). Thromboxanes are cyclic ether derivatives of eicosanoids whose name can be symbolized as TXZy. Z represents the class of thromboxane and y indicates, as in the case of prostaglandins, the number of double bonds. They are involved in platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction. Leukotrienes, on the other hand, are eicosanoid molecules originally isolated from white blood cells, hence the name. They are also classified according to groups symbolized by letters (X) and subscripts (y) denote the number of double bonds found in the structure (LTXy). They are also implicated in processes involving inflammation, bronchoconstriction, vasoconstriction and capillary permeability (1). The overexpression of cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase enzymes which oxidize the double bonds of arachidonic acid to form eicosanoids has been implicated in possible tumorigenesis in the human brain such as in gliomas and meningiomas. Thus, their structures are used as models for designing drugs that target inhibitory sites on the enzymes. It is predicted that future medicines that aim to cure brain tumors may be based on blocking certain reactions catalyzed by cyclooxygenases and lipooxygenases in the eicosanoid synthesis pathway (8). Due to its importance in brain, eyesight development, physical and behavioral functions, alternative sources of these omega-3 PUFA are being tapped and utilized to produce fortified food. Arterburn et al. 2007) have assessed the possibility of utilizing algae as sources of these important fatty acids and found substantial amounts of synthesized arachidonic acid, docosapentaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in membrane lipids and blood cells using algal oil fortified capsule supplements and foods (10). Health benefits and issues Early studies in animals and human test subjects have already established the important roles that omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids play in health functions. A study by Carlson et al. 2003) reports that diets deficient in omega-6 fatty acids impairs the growth of infants by decreasing the synthesis of arachidonic acid whose products play roles in development and phospholipid synthesis (11). It was recently identified that brain lipids metabolism and synthesis has a large dependence on levels of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA, specifically docosahexaenoic acid and other eicosanoids (12). The diet of infants can easily be devoid of omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids, interestingly, it was observed that these fatty acids are transmitted to the fetus from the pool of nutrients of the mother. It is thus important to maintain balance of these fatty acids in lactating and pregnant mothers for the proper development of their infants (5). The role of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA in the development of brain disorders such as schizophrenia is also attributed to the ability of these fatty acids to inhibit the phospholipid degrading enzyme phospholipiase A2 which is found to be increased in schizophrenic individuals (7). Various studies have also reported the beneficial effects of an omega-3 and omega-6 rich diet on physical, behavioral and even psychological health. On the contrary, Hakkarainen et al. 2004) monitors the effect of an increased omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid intake and reports that a positive correlation is observed towards anxiety, alcoholism and depression among male subjects (13). The relation of diseases which stem from genetic alterations such as cancer and their risks based on profiles of dietary intake of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA are also being established. It has been observed that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids lessens the odds of acquiring prostate cancer by slowing down the growth of prostate tumor cells but is reversed by omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Similarly, inter conversion of omega-6 to omega-3 PUFA re-established the positive effects of omega-3 on prostate cancer (14). These reports acknowledge that a healthy diet can be used to minimize genetic predispositions to certain diseases. In addition, if coupled with a healthy diet, preventive lifestyle measures, adequate nutrients, avoidance of red meat, refined floor products and concentrated sugars, substantial sulforophane rich foods such as allium and broccoli, intake of minerals, folic acids, vitamins, antioxidants, carotenoids, probiotics and dietary supplements, these measures and precautions can ward of the risks of cancer (15).

Thermal Power Plants For Electricity Education Essay

Along with other parts of this state economic system, the crude oil industry was privatized and liberalized in the 1990s which resulted in a crisp encouragement in monetary values and investing. Several oil companies are prospecting in or near this state Western Rift Valley where surface oil seeps have occurred. In June 2006 finds at three Fieldss were announced which have combined militias of 100-300 million barrels. This important discovery, but compared to the known militias of Nigeria ( 35 billion barrels ) and Angola ( 5 billion barrels ) . 30 million barrels are deemed ready for extraction is started from 2009/10, which would ensue in an estimated 12,000+ barrels a twenty-four hours. While this is comparable to this state national ingestion, there is non available all the oil-based merchandises that Uganda needs. So, the state is project to export some oil merchandises while go oning to import others. The refinery edifice is provide some national capacity to treat the extracted oil is besides under manner.SolarThis state, In 2002 governmental Energy Policy notes the state ‘s favourable state of affairs sing solar energy: This state is endowed with plentifulness of sunlight giving solar radiation of about 4-5 kWh/m2/day. This type of sunstroke is rather favourable for all solar engineering applications. Solar energy applications in this state include solar photovoltaic ( PV ) , H2O warming, chilling and harvest drying. PV systems are by and large required for applications where nice power demands exist chiefly in countries that are non served by the grid. They provide power for lighting, telecommunications, vaccinum and blood infrigidation, and for playing wireless and telecasting in such countries. This engineering has besides proven to be really successful in supplying energy services to really unaccessible countries such as on islands and cragged countries where the national grid can non be expected to widen its services in the foreseeable hereafter. Government is execution a solar PV pilot undertaking through a funding mechanism that makes it possible for both PV consumers and sellers to obtain recognition from Bankss for solar rural electrification now. The solar H2O application warming is still really limited. In this state Electricity Regulatory Authority reported in 2008 that, â€Å" the Ugandan authorities is advancing solar photo-voltaic systems in places and solar H2O warming in both places and commercial endeavors in order to decrees on the eventide extremum burden demand for grid electricity. A proposed 50MW solar- thermal undertaking is under survey at Namugoga, Wakiso District. † Despite these recent attempts, solar remains a really minor portion of this state existent energy balance.EducationThis state made a big spring progress in instruction in 1997, when the authorities published its Universal Primary Education strategy with the end of doing instruction free for everyone. As 1000s more kids started school, there was existent sense of hope that at last everyone would hold a opportunity to take on in larning in a structured manner. They think that literacy would be available to everyone, but the challenges to a wholly free instruction in this state are many and there are still fees associated with instruction It must be borne by the households. The state of affairs of those who had non had a opportunity to acquire clasp of literacy was even starker. In 1997 they added up to 37 % of this state population, about seven million grownups and kids. Female illiteracy stands at 49 % . It is higher in war affected parts such as Northern Uganda. This is what LABE wor ks to alter – to see a literate environment develop in which everyone participates, to enable people to take charge of their ain acquisition and development.To see parents promoting kids in the instruction. But the narrative of LABE did non get down in 1997. Before now in 1989 a group of people at Makerere University launched a voluntary strategy to advance literacy. In 1995 this had evolved into a registered national non – governmental organisation ( NGO ) working in partnership with national, local and international NGOs, authorities sections and local communities. However, LABE does non run literacy programme or learning literacy categories. It offers a facilitate function, it trains groups and squads of community based pedagogues to get down and pull off categories in the community. LABE develops technic and stuffs for acquisition and instruction. Through a national web of like-minded NGOs, LABE advocates for literacy and seeks to power of authorities policy. In 2002 LABE received international acknowledgment by winning the Noma award, one of the UNESCO International Literacy Prizes, for outstanding work in literacy. The system of instruction in this state has a construction of: 1 ) 7 old ages of primary instruction. 2 ) 6 old ages of secondary instruction ( divided into 4 old ages of lower secondary. 3 ) 2 old ages of upper secondary school ) . 4 ) 3 to 5 old ages of post-secondary instruction. The present system has existed since the early sixtiess.Primary instructionIn 1999 there were 6 million childrens having primary instruction, as compared to merely 2 million in 1986. Numbers received a addition in 1997 when free primary instruction was made available for four kids per household. Merely some of primary school alumnuss go on to take any signifier of secondary instruction. This is dependent upon them go throughing their Primary Leaving Examinations ( PLE ) .Secondary instructionLower secondary consists of 4 old ages of schooling in the terminal of which pupils Ordinary-level tests ( O-level ) in at least 8 topics. Upper secondary consists of 2 old ages of schooling in the terminal of which pupils sit Advanced-level tests ( A-level ) in at least 3 topics. The set of classs for lower secondary is presently being reviewed by the National Curriculum Development Center, and a new set of classs is expected to be rolled out in 2014 or 2015. Three-year proficient schools provide an option to take down secondary school. Options for alumnuss from lower secondary school addes: 1 ) 2-3 twelvemonth Technical institutes ; 2 ) 2 twelvemonth Primary Teacher Colleges ( PTC ) 3 ) Department Training Colleges ( DTCs ) 4 ) Upper secondary schools.Post-secondary instructionAlthough 60,000-70,000 pupils per twelvemonth leave school qualified to travel on to higher instruction, Some of them 35 % ( at most 25,000 ) are able to happen topographic points at the limited figure of establishments. The mass of these go to universities both Public and private. Specifically, Makerere University in Kampala ( MUK ) accepts 95 % of the entire pupil population in this state universities. Rest of all is distributed among the 20 and private universities and a smaller figure of non University establishments. The accepted Universities in this state include:Government UniversitiesMakerere University ( MUK ) Mbarara University of Science & A ; Technology ( MUST ) Kyambogo University ( KYU ) Gulu University ( GU ) Busitema University ( BSU )Religious-Affiliated UniversitiesAll Saints University ( ASU ) Ankole Western University ( AWU ) Bugema University ( BU ) Busoga University ( BGU ) Islamic University in Uganda ( IUIU ) Kumi University ( KUMU ) LivingStone International UniversityLink Ndejje Christian University ( NDU ) Uganda Christian University ( UCU ) Uganda Martyrs University ( UMU ) Uganda Pentecostal University ( UPU )Private Secular UniversitiesFairland University ( FLU ) Kabale University ( KABU ) Kampala University ( KU ) Kampala International University ( KIU ) Lugazi University ( LZU ) Muteesa I Royal University ( MRU ) Mountains of the Moon University ( MMU ) Nkumba University ( NU ) St. Lawrence University ( SLAU ) African Bible University ( ABU ) International Health Sciences University ( IHSU )Public Technical CollegesUganda Technical College – Lira ( UTC Lira ) Uganda Technical College – Ombaci ( UTC Ombaci ) Uganda Technical College – Elgon ( UTC Elgon )Private Technical CollegesCity polytechnic Institute – Kampala ( CPI )Northern UgandaEducation is of import for a successful post-conflict alteration in Northern Uganda ( see Conflict in Northern Uganda ) , as it helps spread out peoples ‘ abilities to interrupt free of circles of aggression and agony. In this state Universal Primary Education ( UPE ) has resulted in high registration rates in Northern Uganda, but instruction tends to be of a low quality and few kids really complete primary school. There are deficient installations ; For e.g. out of 238 primary schools in Pader, 47 are still under trees, limited teacher adjustment is doing high rates of instructor absenteeism and in some countries the mean primary school instructor to student ratio is 1:200. , There is some cogent evidence to propose completion of secondary school is necessary to supply an person with a proper opportunity to get away poorness, as emplo yment and income degrees for those who completed primary schools. And besides for those who did non go to at all. There part has peculiar troubles as instructors are difficult to happen, the struggle shaped a lost coevals without an sufficient instruction themselves and instructors from other countries are still extremely concerned about security in the part. Particular attending to instruction in the part is necessary to guarantee the delicate peace does non acquire worse into full graduated table struggle one time more. This state has a population of about 28 million people. Of that figure, approximately 15 million are under the age of 18. The mean life anticipation is 47 old ages. Lending causes of decease are malaria and HIV/AIDS. One in every 12 kids has been orphaned due to the AIDS epidemic. 6.7 % of the population are populating with the HIV/ AIDS virus. 44 % brand less than $ 1 / twenty-four hours 78 % are peasant husbandmans. 77 % unrecorded on soil floors. 49 % rely in word of oral cavity for their information.School Improvement Plan:Several of us at Educate Uganda have visited schools in the Nkokonjeru country and have seen the creaky school edifices, deficient schoolroom infinite, unhygienic latrines, and the terrible demand for educational stuffs. At Educate in this state they understand that merely paying for the kids to go to school is non sufficient. There are 21 schools which have orphans taking portion in the plan ( see Sponsorship Program ) . They have presently analysing each school to find their specific demands. These demands include the most basic aims as like school edifices, learning stuffs, latrines, desks, blackboards, better H2O beginnings and other things to do these schools a healthy and safe acquisition environment. At now, we are constructing extra schoolrooms and latrines for a jungle school in Nnyermawa called St. Gyaviira. This school presently has two schoolrooms which educate kids through the 4th class. In add-on schoolrooms they will be able to educate pupils through the 7th class. with no the extra schoolrooms, kids have to walk several stat mis through the jungle to go on their surveies at a different school or merely halt their instruction after the 4th class. ( 1 ) Mother Tongue Education undertaking in Northern Uganda ( 2 ) Direction in Mother Tongue-The Language of Opportunity: ( 3 ) Increasing Access to Education Prospects for Children, their Teacher and Parents ( 4 ) In the rural countries, the medium of direction from P1 to P4 will be the relevant local linguistic communications ; and from P5 toP8 English will be the medium of direction. The pertinent country linguistic communication will besides be teach as a topic in primary school. This apply to both rural and urban countries. ( Beginning: Government of this state White paper on Education, 1992 pp. ) The 2000 World Education Forum recognized struggle as an obstructor to the accomplishment of Education For All. Prolonged clang in Northern Uganda has undermined and disrupted instruction through annihilation of substructure, supplanting of school communities, kid abductions, and demoralisation of instructors. This undertaking includes mother tongue instruction as a redress for the current low primary school registration, really short keeping and hapless larning result. in malice of traditional accent in Africa on direction in European linguistic communication, larning in initial old ages in female parent lingua is known to advantage the engagement and public presentation of kids and to hike parental engagement.Broad activitiesaˆ? Train instructors to utilize local linguistic communications successfully in the schoolroom aˆ? Support authors to make educational stuffs in local linguistic communications aˆ? recover kids ‘s literacy and life chances aˆ? power wider pattern and policyPurposes and expected resultsThis undertaking seeks to work with 240 school communities in Northern Uganda to hike meaningful entree to primary instruction for marginalized kids through the development and aid of female parent lingua instruction. This will keep up the authorities to use its adopted female parent lingua policy. It is every bit long as a feasible theoretical account, integrating preparation, resource growing and support which it can so implement and upscale in other countries. This overall program will lend to the realisation of the Millennium Development Goal of Universal Primary Education and gender par in six clang level territories of Northern Uganda. Better instruction will ease poorness through its part to the accretion of human capital, which is necessary for more incomes and uninterrupted economic growing. Undertaking activities duplicate the undermentioned schemes as like developing instructors, broadening the literate env ironment from side to side proviso of local linguistic communication stuffs, hiking parental and household engagement in misss ‘ schooling, intensification local authorities ability to decently supply a quality instruction for marginalized kids. It will be shared easy in print with a big group of people through communicating in original linguistic communications. This will let non-literate hapless people, particularly adult females and misss, to hike watchfulness about the right to educational entree and usage available print information in female parent lingua on their ain. By leting misss and parents, with a focal point on female parents in peculiar, to document their experiences in the female parent lingua. The undertaking will acquire better their entree to instruction and increase consciousness in the wider community of the significance of misss ‘ instruction.Scope of this planThe undertaking covers 6 territories of Gulu, Amuru, Arua, Koboko, Yumbe and Adjumani territory. The undertaking includes 40 UPE schools in each of the territory.Learn to populateThe undertaking aims at bettering parents ‘ literacy accomplishments and ability to take part to the full in the instruction of their kids. It adapts the household larning attack where parents are mobilized to larn jointly with their kids both at school and at place. Mothers are specifically targeted ( in order to turn to the gender spread ) during grownup literacy categories and besides mobilizes them to take part in kids – parent articulation larning Sessionss in schools. The adul t females particularly female parents are provided with local linguistic communication reading stuffs to utilize at place to better joint larning with their kids. Mother Tongue Educational stuffs turn toing different faculties ensuing from the national thematic course of study – specifically turn toing HIV/Aids content and showing misss and male childs positively are produced and used in categories and places to diminish the kid book ratio to a national coveted ratio of 1:6. LABE works with adult females force per unit area groups to asseverate force per unit area on the parents, community and local authorities to ordain bye Torahs to guarantee that kids – particularly girl children- enroll, stay and complete schools. It implements in the two territories of Gulu and Amuru both in northern Uganda.Family Sexuality Education ProjectThe undertaking ‘s overall purpose is to hike kids ‘s educational public presentation, keeping and completion particularly among the misss, during increased parents and instructors active engagement in their sexual generative wellness and rights instruction. The one twelvemonth Oxfam Novib support pilot that was implemented in 4 schools – communities of Yumbe and Koboko territories specifically aimed at ; Bettering the capacity of parents to positively pass on with their kids Sex and Reproductive Health issues Equiping parents with information and accomplishments to recommend for SRHR and rights of kids Bettering the capacity of female and male senior instructors to advocate kids with societal challenges at schoolAwareness On Children ‘s ( Especially Girls ‘ ) Right To Education CampaignIt is a 1 twelvemonth pilot undertaking implemented in 10 schools -communities of Arua territory with fiscal support from KIOS. It is of import end to make consciousness on the kids ‘s right to instruction ; supply the responsibility carriers to carry through their responsibility and the rights holders to demand for their rights. This undertaking works to do certain that 900 parents ( 65 % adult females ) 40 instructors and 10 school communities are cognizant of the aggression committed against Children particularly misss, at school, place and the community. These communities are supported to promote the Children ‘s ( particularly the girl-child ) right to education through the growing of Education regulations, wireless runs, preparations and sensitisations and adult females force group local response to VAC enterprise. The undertaking besides include engages local school policy shapers such as School Management Committees from the point out schools in one Sub County to increase consciousness on the kids ‘s right for the better acquisition environment both at school and at place. The undertaking is work in partnership with increasing Voices – utilizing the VAC stuffs to strongly recommend following to VAC both within and without the school environment Undertaking activities aim is to supplying information to recommend for kids ‘s right to instruction and a good acquisition environment, sensitisation on kids ‘s rights to instruction and a good acquisition environment and duties of instruction responsibility carriers ( caput instructors, School Management Committees, instructors, instruction officers every bit good as parents )Learning For Life ( Labe – Wch – Echo Bravo )It is bettering educational public presentation among kids, retain accomplishments, and facilitate kids and misss to remain put in school. To use these wide ends, LABE partnered with War Child Holland and Echo Bravo to implement three interconnected sub-projects. LABE is implementing family-based instruction programming to retrieve school public presentation and keeping rates by the preparation parent pedagogues and instructors in household larning techniques and pedagogical instruction methods, every bit good as mobilising parents for grownup literacy categories and to keep up kids ‘s educational activities. In this struggle Child offers psychological clasp up to youth, while Echo Bravo has apply catch-up instruction and accomplishments developing classs to back up community members who can non restart formal primary instruction. Learning for Life is being applied in 25 schools indoors five sub-counties of: Bobi, Paicho in Gulu and Koch Goma, Alero, Lamogi in Amuru territories with support from Oxfam NovibCourses, Semesters, & A ; Diplomas:It ‘s takes three old ages to go a unmarried mans degree at any East African university, Makerere University and Mbarara University are no opportunities. Degrees in medical specialty and veterinary scientific discipline take five old ages to finish, and technology demands four old ages to finish. Academic old ages begin October 1 and stop on June 30, or August 30 for four term classs. In the first twelvemonth of survey each pupil must take and go through three topics before being permission to progress to their 2nd twelvemonth of coursework. Lectures, treatments, and research labs are supplemented with tutorials and library surveies, research, and practical preparation. Undergraduate pupils have installations for relaxation, athleticss installations, chaplainships, we llness attention, and chances to take part in student authorities and societal nines. First grades are gettable in Fieldss such as medical specialty, jurisprudence, dental medicine, veterinary scientific discipline, agribusiness, technology, commercialism, statistics, societal work, forestry, doctrine, political scientific discipline, anthropology, sociology, geographics, literature, public disposal, economic sciences, music, dance, play, all right art, natural philosophies, chemical science, biological science, fauna, environmental surveies, mathematics, and computing machine scientific discipline, every bit good as linguistic communications ( English, French, German, Russian, Swahili, Luganda, and Lingala ) . Students can acquire either a grade, such as a unmarried man ‘s grade, maestro ‘s grade, or Ph.D. , or a sheepskin or certification. Certificate classs are including grownup instruction and library scientific discipline. It takes one twelvemonth to finish. Biennial sheepskin classs are supplying in library scientific discipline, music, dance, and play. The Islamic University suggest unmarried man ‘s grades in Islamic surveies, instruction, and medical specialty. Mbarara University of Science and Technology awards grades in development surveies, instruction, medical specialty, and applied scientific discipline. The Institute of Teacher Education at Kyambogo awards sheepskin in instruction to instructors who complete a biennial class. In this state so many institutes are award either certifications or sheepskin depending upon the continuance of coursework.Postgraduate & A ; Professional Training:Most maestro ‘s degree campaigners must run into residence necessit ies, take required classs, and compose a maestro ‘s these is based upon original research. Doctoral degree plans are besides have residence and less coursework demands, every bit good as a paper based upon original research. Students must fulfill their internal reappraisal commissions and external testers that they have mastered their topic. The M.D. and/or Ch.M. grade is awarded after finishing one twelvemonth of survey in front of the unmarried man ‘s of scientific discipline grade, and the doctor's degree of literature ( D. Lit. ) and D.Sc. are awarded after publication of work. For this state fees for tuition, research, and adjustments are free. Foreign pupils are required to pay one-year tuition and fees, and besides pay for research and thesis, every bit good as adjustment costs individuallyFood engineeringOn this favourable juncture, the School of Food Technology, Nutrition & A ; Bioengineering, College of Agricultural & A ; Environmental Sciences, Makerere Univer sity salutations and congratulates King Harald, Queen Sonja, Her Excellency the Ambassador and the whole people of Norway on taging their Constitutional Day. The School of Food Technology, Nutrition and Bioengineering is conceited to be associated with the Royal Government of Norway and the Norse Universities and growing bureaus. We take this chance to explicate their gratitude to NORAD, NUFU, The Norse University of Life Sciences and the full Norse people for their continued aid and favour in developing our research, preparation and out range capacity. Giving up of the School to national human resource requires that the school has trained over 2000 alumnuss at BSc, MSc and PhD degrees in assorted Fieldss of Food Technology. Human Nutrition and Bioengineering. Their alumnuss continue to do positive parts in the nutrient industry, agricultural mechanisation, agro-processing and public bureaus are employed, some of their successful enterprisers. The School is repackaging their preparation plans through beef uping and betterment of the practical, internship and entrepreneurship constituents to do their alumnuss for the challenges in their turning nutrient sub-sector. The suggest preparation plans In this include: For the Undergraduate: B.Sc. Food Science and Technology B.Sc. Human Nutrition and Dieteticss B.Sc. Agricultural Engineering For the Alumnus: MSc. Applied Human Nutrition, MSc. Food Science and Technology PhD. Program in several countries of Food Science, Human Nutrition & A ; Bioengineering Short classs: The School under their Skills Training Program for Small & A ; Medium Enterprises ( STRAP 4 SMEs ) runs specific short preparation classs in the country of nutrient processing, nutrition and irrigation that are custom made to run into the client ‘s demands. At that type of plan benefits young person enterprisers, future enterprisers, school departers, pupils on holiday, university alumnuss, and extra room workers. The preparation under STRAP 4 SMEs plan is conducted at both the University ‘s chief campus and clients ‘ site in English though local slangs may be second-hand where necessary. This plan has so distant trained over 130 participants in assorted nutrient processing engineerings. With support from Nordic states and Government of this state, the school continues to do growing in the country of research for development. In surplus of 15 nutrient processing engineering bundles have been built-up and are ready for uptake by industry. Research for development activities have besides contributed to capacity edifice for the School through: Staff preparation at PhD and MSc and changeless research Lab and processing substructure growing Constructing partnerships for engineering transportation and growing The capacity of edifice and growing has constant to beef up the School ‘s preparation, research and outreach plans. Government-University-Private Sector Partnership in engineering move & A ; enterprise growing. In 2009 the Government bigger support to the School through commissioning the Food Technology and Business Incubation Center ( FTBIC ) . The centre is a partnership between Government of this state, Makerere University and the private sector aimed at engineering exchange and advancing entrepreneurship in the nutrient sub-sector by supplying right of entry to processing installations and proficient clasp to foster immature enterprisers and endeavors. To this coating, the Government of this state supported the FTBIC with a UShs 4.5 billion grant to spread out the centre into a state-of-the-art capableness to excite and spread out feasible and competitory nutrient processing endeavors in the state. The centre focuses on alumnus young person by agencies of entrepreneurial po tency.InfrastructureUganda has made considerable development on its substructure docket in recent old ages. The early and winning ICT reform detonated a huge enlargement in nomadic coverage and incursion ensuing in a really much competitory market. Power sector restructuring has paved the manner for a rapid doubling of power production capacity. This state is making all right on the H2O and hygiene MDGs, and has made successful usage of public presentation catching to better public-service corporation public presentation. Though, a figure of important challenges remain. in malice of reforms, the power sector continues to shed blood resources due to under-pricing and high distribution losingss, while electrification rates are still really minimal. every bit long as equal resources for route care remains a face, and farther investing is needed to raise rural connectivity and retrieve route safety. In this state substructure challenges will necessitate sustained outgo of around $ 1.4 b illion per twelvemonth over the following decennary, strongly skewed towards capital outgo. In this state already spends about $ 1 billion per twelvemonth on substructure, equal to about 11 per centum of GDP. A farther $ 0.3 billion a twelvemonth is lost to inefficiencies, the mass of which are associated with underbracing and allotment losingss in the power sector. In this state the one-year substructure funding spread is about $ 0.4 billion per twelvemonth, most of which is linked with irrigation and besides H2O and sanitation substructure This state sees infrastructure spend buoying growing * Sets to the side $ 85.52 million to construct 700 MW dike * Aims to pare rising prices to individual figures in 2012/2013 KAMPALA, April 26 ( Reuters ) – This state rate of economic growing is predictable to increase somewhat during the following financial twelvemonth as the state ramps up investings in transit substructure, energy and instruction, the finance ministry said on Thursday.

Critically assess the view that multicultural policies promote social Essay - 1

Critically assess the view that multicultural policies promote social segregation - Essay Example The policy proposes that all the ethnic groups should be treated equally. No one group is taken to be superior to the other. The government does not force people to adhere to one universal religion or culture. Many people support multiculturalism. This is especially so in the academic circles and in the media (Malik, 2008:89). It receives a lot of support from those countries that are culturally diverse, with a lot of different cultural groups making up the society, as opposed to one cultural group. But this theory has its share of opponents. It is especially opposed by those people who adhere to a particular set of norms of one culture. In Europe and the United States of America, this phenomenon of multiculturalism can be traced back to the last years of the nineteenth century (Barry, 2001:56). It started as a form of philosophical, pragmatist ideology. Then, as the nineteenth century came to an end and the twentieth century began, it metamorphosised into something entirely new. It became part of the political and cultural pluralism in these countries (Barry, 2001:67). Around this time, the European and Western countries were colonising Africa and as such, had to recognise the cultural d iversity of these countries. There were a lot of migratory activities in to Europe and America which meant that these countries had a diverse society as far as cultural groups are concerned. The sociologists and historians of the time came up with a form of cultural pluralism that gave rise to multiculturalism (Harker, 2006:45). This paper will try to look at multiculturalism as far as social segregation is concerned. This is because multicultural policies have been accused of segregating the society into different and separate cultural groups and these acts as a hindrance to social cohesion. These policies might include the recognition of multiple citizenship. The administration might also promote media houses that operate in a minority

The advantages of the nursing profession to any society Essay

The advantages of the nursing profession to any society - Essay Example Healthcare is a priority for any society that appreciates the welfare of her citizens,and the role of the professional nurse in the quality of healthcare is crucial.However,not all societies appreciate the important role that the nurse plays in qualitative and effective healthcare delivery system.The purpose of this research is to document the cost implications of the absence of solid and working professional nursing community in any society,using community nursing as a yardstick.The research study will make use of a survey questionnaire to collect data from consenting subjects that shall include the elderly with frailty or other patients with special needs and long term admission in hospital settings,and professional nurses that have had several years of experience with special need patients.The consent of the subjects shall be sought before the questionnaire is administered on them and the confidentiality of the subjects maintained.Human subject approval will also be obtained from the School of Nursing.Descriptive statistics and correlational statistics will be used to analyse the data collected to determine the perception of nursing in the community and the perceived cost of long term hospital admission.It is hoped that the results of this study would make the government and healthcare professional redesign the healthcare system around a professional nursing community as is obtained in several developed countries where the roles of the nurse in qualitative healthcare delivery have been appreciated.... As if that is not enough, nurses are known to advocate for health promotion, educate patients and the public on the prevention of illness and injury, provide care and assist in cure, participate in rehabilitation, and provide support. No other healthcare professional can reasonable make claims to such a complex and far reaching role in healthcare delivery (Lenburg, 1999; Importance of Nursing, 2006). Nurses do more than care for individuals. They have always have been at the forefront of change in health care and public health, they provide ongoing assessment of people's health. Their round-the-clock presence, observation skills, and vigilance allow doctors to make better diagnoses and propose better treatments. Many lives have been saved because an attentive nurse picked upon early warning signs of an upcoming crisis like cardiac arrest or respiratory failure. According to Thomson (1997), the role of the professional nurse goes beyond the carrying out of tasks usually associated with the profession, especially in countries where the role of the nurse has not been fully appreciated, neither is the nurse restricted to just 'caring' for the patient. She argued that every professional nurse is taught and mandated to act always in such a manner as to: safeguard and promote the interests of individual patients and clients; serve the interests of society, justify public trust and confidence and uphold and enhance the good standing and reputation of the professions One important aspect of nursing that greatly affects the quality of life of any society is community nursing, also referred to as visiting homecare nursing.

Apple Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Apple - Assignment Example In addition, the discussion of the assignment also tends to focus on current business performance of Apple pertaining to its financial, operational, managing and strategic background of the company. With regard to the major competitive scenario, business organisations have been often identified to involve significant strategic characteristics in comparison to their competitors. In relation to the current emerging trend in the consumer electronics and computer Hardware and software manufacturing business industry, organisations are often considered attaining significant growth by delivering wide range of streamlined products and services to the target customers. The exceptional strategic measures along with striving pace in research and development have substantially enabled the industry to contribute a large portion in the global economy. The striving business practices and performance of the market leaders have been critically identified to obtain a large financial growth over the last two decades in the global consumer electronics and computer manufacturing industry. In relation to the current industry trend, the industry has witnessed to simultaneously perform in line with the unabated economic transition. According to the current statistical reports, global consumer electronics manufacturing industry has been recorded to US$ 226bn over the past five years with an annual growth of 0.7% in 2014 (IBISWorld, â€Å"Global Consumer Electronics Manufacturing: Market Research Report†). In addition, the strategic measures and practices including wider brand differentiation along with unique mode of business operations have substantially enabled the electronic manufacturing market leaders to achieve continuous success than other business sectors. In relation to the current trend in this respective industry, aggressive expansion of business units across

Kant and Hume on Morality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Kant and Hume on Morality - Essay Example Later on these views are critically analysed to establish which point of view is better. Kant Kant argues for an a priori basis for morality in his work. The central concept is the â€Å"categorical imperative†. The author sees morality springing from nothing other than pure reason. This contradicts Hume directly who held that reason could never be ground to justify morality. However, Kant states that people’s personhood and dignity should always be respected. People can be treated as both a means and an end simultaneously but not merely as means. Lying has been used as an example by Kant to justify his notion. He considers lying to be immoral under any circumstances and for any purpose at all. Actions must be universal according to Kant. Moreover, morality cannot be treated as an issue of mere preference or taste. Kant has utilised maxims to establish the a priori basis for morality. Volition is wanted that is a rule that is followed by an intentional act. He argues th at any moral actions must fall into one of the five categories that constitute the categorical imperative. ... thing: â€Å"can be regarded as good without qualification, except a good will.† 1 Good will is seen as the beacon that guides a person to doing the right thing. In case that a person fails to do a good thing, the good will has not failed. Instead the ability to carry out the good will has failed. Following the establishment of good will, Kant moves to establish moral obligations and duty. He delineates that many acts are done out of personal consideration rather than for the sake of morality. A shopkeeper who uses honest prices is doing so because he wishes to be respected by his customers and not merely for the sake of morality alone. Kant believes that such a person â€Å"deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem.† 2 People who commit the greatest moral acts are the ones who commit such actions without regard for reward. Kant affirms that these are the only people who are actually acting morally. Durkheim’s altruistic suicide is seen by Kant as an este emed action because the man giving up his life gains nothing out of it. As per Kant: â€Å"Duty is the necessity to act out of reverence for the (moral) law.† 3 Following the moral law in intrinsic sense of right and wrong is a person’s greatest obligation. Hence, morality is a priori as per Kant. He further proposes four situations that demand decision making to with respect to duty. These are: actions contrary to duty for example stealing; dutiful actions carried out in fear of reprisal or penalties for example paying taxes, not violating traffic signs; dutiful actions that are carried out because of the agent’s prior inclination to them generally because such actions are pleasurable for example any labour of love; dutiful actions that contradict personal inclination for example not resorting to suicide

What and why do americans need the fda What are all the benefits of Research Paper

What and why do americans need the fda What are all the benefits of the FDA PROs of the fda - Research Paper Example FDA is a federal agency headed by a commissioner who is appointed by the President of the US (Whittaker and Walter, The Purpose par. 1). Its precursor agency was the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration which was reorganized from the Bureau of Chemistry in 1927 (Lee and Sprague, History par. 3). In 1930, the name of the agency was changed to Food and Drug Administration (par. 3). It was said to protect not only the interest of the consumers but also the pharmacology industry due to some complexities that it has encountered in the process of regulation (Jacobs and Carson-Dewitt par. 1). The earliest functions of the FDA were set forth in the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 which was passed after the poisoning of more than a hundred people from a drug sold by a Tennessee-based company (Lee and Sprague, History par. 3). The Act mandated that all drugs should pass the FDA approval before being released into the market (par. 3). Moreover, FDA was required to provide a set of safety standards for food and drugs, and that drugs should contain detailed labels and proper instructions for use (par. 3). Its scope of functions increased with the passage of other laws (e.g. Food Additives Amendment of 1958, Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965, 1976 Medical Devices Amendments) (par. 5). One-fourth of all the products in the US market are regulated by FDA as of 2008 (Lee and Sprague, FDA Approvals par. 3). Pharmaceutical firms are allowed by law to advertise their products which may not be accurate since adverts are made to exaggerate in order to convince consumers to buy their products. The FDA has the power to regulate the contents of the advertisements so that only a â€Å"balanced perspective† will be presented to consumers and end-users (DiLascio, FDA Regulations par. 1). Pharmaceuticals firms have also resorted to the DTC strategy in marketing their products. DTC refers to the Direct-to-Consumer approach that tends to reach consumers directly through

International Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

International Marketing - Essay Example There are varieties of options before a company when they decide to enter an overseas market. Three major issues require careful planning before venturing into another region, which include the right marketing mix, sourcing or the product and investment decisions (Qdi). Marketing mix itself involves decisions on whether to sell in the other country directly or through intermediaries and which market segment should be tapped first. Marketing mix for services is more difficult to ascertain than for products. Investment decisions and control are equally important - whether it should be a joint venture with a local partner, whether they should acquire an existing company in that country or have a global partner. Based on these factors, this report will discuss the marketing strategies of two different Companies in the service sector - DHL's entry in the China market and Vodafone of UK's entry in the US market.

How Does Steinbeck Presents Curleys Wife in of Mice and Men Essay Example for Free

How Does Steinbeck Presents Curleys Wife in of Mice and Men Essay Curley’s wife is a significant personality in the novel. John Steinbeck presents her in different ways during the novel and uses different methods to influence the reader’s judgement, for instance through her look, as she is a complex character. Significantly Steinbeck makes it clear that nurture turns her into the person she is in the novel, her nature is different. He uses language to show us who she is as revealed by colour and light symbolism; incongruity of her appearance and the setting; simile. For the majority of the book she is labelled in a negative way as a treacherous, kittenish character which could be interpreted as a replication of the way civilization observed the character of women in the novel. Sometimes, Steinbeck includes thoughts denouncing Curley’s wife. He also points out some of her good qualities. Due to this, readers can interpret for themselves if Steinbeck thinks highly of her, or if he does not like her. Nevertheless later in the book Steinbeck deploys the reader into seeing her as complex, and feeling consideration for Curley’s wife; revealing her as a victim, anxious and secluded in a man’s world. Although he may go back and forth on Curley’s wife, in the end, Steinbeck is mainly condemning her. Steinbeck explores her as attractive towards man through her beauty and an attention seeker. In the passage the first words that Steinbeck uses are that â€Å"Both men glanced up,† and through this we are introduced to Curley’s wife through her effect on men and not through any notion of herself, which Steinbeck does to show us she is only worthy for the use of men. The word glanced up shows that she want men to look at her for she is has the beauty of an actress. Not extended moment when Steinbeck exaggerates â€Å"the rectangle of sunshine in the doorway way cut off. † Here, Steinbeck uses the light symbolically to highlight how imposing she is and present the idea that she is the obstacle to a better life. The image of Curley’s wife casting a shadow across the bunkhouse hints at trouble to come later in the novel. It soon becomes apparent that Curley’s wife is an outsider of the group when it states, â€Å"A girl was standing there looking in,† hence is a metaphor for the segregation she senses. It could be insightful of the gender roles at the time; women were only desired for men’s erotic desires rather than their company. One could also deduce it as how likewise to a ‘girl’, (which she ironically is no longer), she is in search of thoughtfulness and requires all eyes to be on her by standing in the sight of the whole world and might be realised as attempting to listen in on their conversation – both very juvenile schemes. Therefore Steinbeck presents Curley’s Wife in â€Å"Of Mice and Men† as someone who is very eye-catching and courtesy inquirer. On the other hand, he portrays her as isolated and discriminated by men as she is excluded for being female, which sometimes lead to violence. This is illustrated when she is called ‘tart’, ‘jailbait’, and ‘bitch’ by the men on the ranch; henceforth the ranch is a very hostile and misogynistic place. Curley’s Wife is an outsider and seems very out of place. She is frequently found in examine for companionship on the ranch as her recently found marriage does not give her the warmth she desires, as she states to Lennie â€Å"I don’t like Curley he aint a nice fella,† and due to this she often tries to cooperate with the other men although she is never allowed as they think a â€Å"ranch aint no place for a girl. † Carlson also states of how a â€Å"women should be at home where she belongs. † The fact that she is excluded from a place of physical work is symptomatic of how women were exposed during the 1930’s. They were not predictable to do work, but in its place stay at home and raise a family. Curley’ wife feels apprehensive because of the solitude she feels and it is made clear she is exasperated with this condition, â€Å"none of them care how I gotta live. † Nonetheless, the reader is presented with a side to an apparently playful and occasionally vindictive character. In chapter 5, Steinbeck permits Curley’s Wife’s character to eloquent emotions of loneliness, â€Å"I get lonely† and â€Å"I get awful lonely†. The use of repetition is used to give emphasis to the remoteness and frustration of not being able to talk to â€Å"nobody but Curley†, her hindrance which incessantly exteriors as she speaks to Lennie. Moreover, for the period of the scene Steinbeck describes as such â€Å"And then her words tumbled out in a passion of communication, as though she hurried before her listener could be taken away†. The word â€Å"tumbled† recommends her frantic need to communicate to people, at the same time as the expression â€Å"passion† demonstrates her authority and strength needed to interconnect. Yet, what is predominantly conspicuous is she is used to people walking away from her when she speaks, this generates such consideration for her. In this chapter she is also presented as a moderate and approachable character, as Steinbeck describes â€Å"she consoled him. ‘Don’t you worry any’ [†¦] she moved closer to him and spoke soothingly. † The fact that she spoke â€Å"soothingly† suggests that she has a kind nature, and asked in a maternal way when Lennie needed such gentleness. The reader can then relate this sudden behaviour transformation and her upcoming, but the syrupiness she bounces off blurs the reader’s sight to floral it. All the way through the novel as similar to Crooks, Curley’s Wife is not named. This highlights her lack of identity on the ranch and how she is viewed as the property of her husband as well as the word â€Å"live† indicates that she also is a living human being who wants to fulfil her dreams and desires but it would be impossible for her. As a result of her insecurities, she tries to combat her loneliness and sequestration by resorting to violence. Her vicious attacks on Crooks to getting him â€Å"strung up on a tree† and the attacks on Lennie due to his mental disability show how loneliness can not only change a person, but destroy them. All of the emotions Curley’s Wife encounters come as a result of the loneliness she feels, and these clearly represent of what a terrifying character she is. Therefore Steinbeck describes Curley’s wife as isolated and discriminate due to her gender of a female throughout the novel. Equally, at the end of the novel, she is presented as innocent and purified from all the trouble through the description of her appearance. This can be seen in chapter 6 when Steinbeck explains â€Å"Curleys wife lay with a half-covering of yellow hay. And the meanness and the plannings and the discontent and the ache for attention were all gone from her face. She was very pretty and simple, and her face was sweet and young. Now her rouged cheeks and her reddened lips made her seem alive and sleeping very lightly. The curls, tiny little sausages, were spread on the hay behind her head, and her lips were parted. As happens sometimes, a moment settled and hovered and remained for much more than a moment. And sound stopped and movement stopped for much, much more than a moment. † From this passage, the reader can acknowledge the real Curley’s wife but at the same time feel sorry for her as her dream was unfulfilled. The phrase â€Å"meanness ( ) plannings (†¦) discontent (†¦) were all gone from her face† shows that she is no longer vicious and dangerous as all the negativity vanished. Most importantly the phrase â€Å"roughed cheeks and reddened lips† conveys that her dream is unfulfilled and the repetition of â€Å"stopped† to emphasise stillness and the feelings of time standing still. Therefore Steinbeck does not present her as a negative character, but at the time of her death he shows the reader the real her as it was not her nature but nurture that made her what she was. In contrast Curley’s Wife at first is portrayed as a revolting unpleasant woman. Curley’s Wife is described by Steinbeck many times as â€Å"roughed lips and wide-spaced eyes. Her fingernails were red. † this causes the reader to think of her as he says so. Nonetheless, despite these brutal views of her, the reader is presented with a side to a seemingly flirtatious and sometimes malevolent character. The repetition of the colour â€Å"red† denotes the fact that she is very dangerous and cause lot of trouble as the colour red is frequently associated to blood and murder which foreshadows the scenes later on in the novel. An alternative interpretation could be that red is also represent as the colour of love and she is wanting to be love, but many readers would link it to her actress personality as most actress love to dress a lot. Not so long, Steinbeck describes her hair as â€Å"her hair hung in little rolled clusters, like sausages,† and this simile shocks the reader because sausages are disliked and filthy, so linking it to her means that she is also disliked. Furthermore as sausages do not match with hair, the same way she is not suitable for a place like the ranch. Therefore Steinbeck portrays Curley’s wife as a woman who is dangerous and disliked by linking her with words that supports the point. John Steinbeck points out many flaws in Curley’s wife. For example, he does this when he writes, â€Å"she leaned against the door frame so that her body was thrown forward† (Page 51). In this statement, Steinbeck is pointing out that Curley’s wife always tries to instigate something. He also describes her body image and how provocative she is, always looking for attention. Steinbeck says many more things to condemn Curley’s wife, but that is not all that he says about her. Steinbeck also defends Curley’s wife. He writes of how lonely she is, and describes her as innocent as the rabbits and puppy killed by another character, Lennie. For instance, Curley’s wife says, â€Å"Think I don’t want to talk to somebody ever’ once in a while? Think I like to stick in that house alla time? †(Page 77). In this statement, Curley’s wife implies that she is tired of being lonely and wants to talk to other people. As much as Steinbeck appears to flip-flop on his view of Curley’s wife, readers can draw different conclusions.

Three Tier Architecture Is A Client Server Information Technology Essay

Three Tier Architecture Is A Client Server Information Technology Essay In software engineering, three-tier architecture is a client-server architecture which consists of three layer; presentation layer, functional process logic layer and data layer and is develop and maintain as different module. This architecture is developed by Jon J.Donovan in Open Environment Corporation(OEC), a tools company the founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts. By dividing application into tiers or layers, developers only have to modify or add a specific logic into the desired layer, rather than rewrite the whole application. This architecture will allows developer to create a more flexible, reusable and maintainable application. This kind of Three-tier layer can also be known as multi-tier architecture or n-tier architecture. Example when user wants to change the text colour from black to red, only the presentation layer will be affected. A common example of three tier architecture is ATM (Automated Teller Machine) or Cash Machine. The GUI (Graphical User Interface) where we select services is the presentation layer for ATM. When selecting one of the services that are displayed on the screen, designated event for the services will be invoked. This common set of behaviour is designed in the functional process logic layer. When requesting information such as checking the balance in our bank account, ATM will get the data from the database or application server. This will be the data layer. Presentation Layer or can also be known as presentation tier, a layer where the presentation or user interface of an application is designed or displayed. In other word, this is the layer which will display all the information that is needed or requested by the user. Presentation layer is the top most layers in the three-tier architecture. Besides displaying information that is needed by user, this layer will also be used to communicate between other layers by user. For example in Window OS (Operating System), program icon is displayed to allow user to click on it to open the clicked program. Presentation layer is also part of security where only the needed information will be displayed while other sensitive information will be kept. For example, stock department will need to be able to view and edit the product stock while sales department only need to be able to view the stock that is available. The presentation layer for Al-Seraj Hire Firm will consist of multiple types. This is because Al-Seraj Hire Firm has different employees that are specialise in different type of aspect of business services in the hire firm. Some employees will only need to display certain information while other may have more or less information. For example in Al-Seraj Hire Firm; purchasing, customer account, sales and marketing will have their own presentation layer. Functional process logic Layer Functional process logic Layer is the middle layer in the three-tier architecture. It can also be known business or data access tier, a layer where logic and calculation is taken place. In other word, the business function or business flow will design in this layer. Functional process logic layer contain the code or function to control the application functionality and also the application business flow. Besides that, it also contains the business logic of the company. Functional process logic Layer is separated from presentation layer and data layer is to protect the confidentiality and integrity of business flow of a company. Besides that, function is shared by different users. This enables the system to have a consistent and centralized function that can be used by different users. For example, the function or logic to view the stock that is available in the company that is viewed by the stock department the same as what is seen by the sales department. Other than that, by separating the functional process logic layer, it will enable the administrator or person in charge of the system to easily add in or modify the logic in the system without affecting the other layer. The functional process logic layer in Al-Seraj Hire Firm will contain the function to indicate whether the customer is a private customer or a business customer. This is because private customer and business customer has their own business logic. Examples of business logic are hiring equipment for private customer is restricted within five miles radius while business customer doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have this restriction. Besides that, business customer will have a 24-hours customer services to replace the faulty equipment while private customer will need to bring in the faulty equipment to replace to working equipment or get a full refund if the equipment is not available. Data Layer Data Layer or can also be known as data tier, is a layer where all the data which is inserted by the user is saved. In other word, all information that is entered by the user will be saved in this layer. Data layer will be responsible to provide the data that is requested from the user. Besides that data can be shared by different users. By doing this, data integrity can be achieved and providing accurate data that is requested by users. This is because the data is saved in a single database which allow different user to get access and request for the data. Besides that, by separating data layer, this will improves the scalability and performance of the system. The data layer in Al-Seraj Hire Firm will contain the price of the equipment and also the delivery time that is offered by the suppliers. Besides that, it also contains the customer account and also the account packages that are provided by the hire firm. The five most important user group for Al-Seraj Hire Firm System are Purchasing, Customer Account, Stock Management, Sales and Marketing and Administrator. Administrator Administrator is a user group which have the most privileges than any other user group in the system. This is because administrator is a user group that is designed to control or use the full function of the system. Besides that, they also have the privilege to change sensitive data such as the price or discount value for each type of membership account. This user group is used by the owner of Al-Seraj Hire Firm or the person-in-charge of the system. There are three quality requirements for Administrator user group. The first quality requirements are security requirement. Security requirement is the requirement for the user to be authenticated and authorize as administrator user group. In this user group, the user of the system will need to be authenticated before user is allowed to be authorized as an administrator. The second quality requirements are modifiability requirement. Modifiability is the requirement for the user to be able to add, modify or delete any data in the database. In this user group, the user of the system will be able to add, modify or delete data in the system. Examples of data in database are discount value for silver membership, gold membership and diamond membership. The third and last quality requirements are testability requirement. Testability requirement is the requirement for the user to be able to test the whole system with ease. In this user group, user will have the full function that is provided in the system. This also includes other user group function such as stock management and customer account information. Administrator user group is the top user group in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. This is because any changes that are made by administrator user group, other user group will also be affected. For example, discount value for silver membership which are currently 10%, has been changed to 15%, all user group will have to follow the new discount value. Customer Account Customer Account user group is a user group which is responsible for managing customer. In other word, this user group is designed to manage all the type of customer who makes transaction with Al-Seraj Hire Firm. Besides that, this user group also responsible to modify or update customer information and also provide customer services to the customers. There are two quality requirements for Customer Account user group. The first quality requirement is modifiability. User in this user group will need to be able to change the customer account information as accurate as possible to maintain the productivity of the company. For example, company X has changed their address; the user will need to change the address to the new address to allow other employee to deliver the goods to the destination. The second and last quality requirement is performance. Performance requirement is the requirement for the user to be able to access or display the desired data in a less amount of work. In this user group, user will need to use the system to search out the suitable customer account in a less amount of time. Customer account user group is the low level user group in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. This is because all customer details will need to be added into customer account database. As for the data of the customer account, user from the same level will need to take reference to decide which type of customer are they dealing with. For example, a customer has called in and reported that one of their tool has been broke, the user will need to check the customer details to identify whether the customer is a business customer or a private customer. Sales and Marketing Sales and Marketing user group is a user group which is responsible for doing sales transaction with the customer. In other word, this user group is designed to record any transaction that is made with customer into the database via Al-Seraj Hire Firm system. Besides that, this user group will also keep track or produce a financial report according to the sales transaction that has been made in a period of time. There are three quality requirements for sales and marketing user group. The first requirement is performance. Performance is important for this user group because this is where the income of the Al-Seraj Hire Firm came from. User in this user group will need to have the speed and efficiency to search for tool that is available in time and also the price for it. Besides that, they also need to identify whether it is an existing customer and which type of customer are they in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. For example, two users from this user group will be able to use the system simultaneously to search for customer information. The second quality requirement is availability requirement. Availability requirement is important for this user group is because sales of Al-Seraj Hire Firm need to be available during working period. In other word, the system will need to be available when it is needed. For example, maintenance or patch of the system can only be done when there are no people that are using the system to prevent disruption of the sales flow. The third quality requirement is usability. The information that retrieves by the user from the system can be used or not. In other word, the user will need retrieves accurate information from the system. Sales and marketing user group is the low level user group in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. This is because user will need to be able to access into the stock management user group information and customer account user group information. This is because they need to identify whether the customer is a private or business customer and is the tool available and what is the price for it. Stock Management Stock Management user group is a user group which is responsible for managing stock in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. In other word, this user group is designed to maintain the availability of tool stock in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. There are two quality requirements for stock management user group. The first quality requirement is usability. The user of this user group will need the accurate information of the stock that is available in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. In other word, user need to get the real number of stock that is available to decide to restock or not. This is because other user group such as sales and marketing will also be able to change the value of the stock in the stock database. The second quality requirement is modifiability. User will need to be able to change the value or number of stock in the database through the system. In other word, user will add or modify the number of stock in the database via the system that is designed. Stock management user group is the low level user group in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. This is because user in this user group will need to be able to check for the number of stock that is available and restock it if it is not enough. Purchasing Purchasing user group is a user group which is responsible for purchasing new equipment brands based on Al-Seraj Hire Firm equipment categories. In other word, this user group is designed to purchase new equipment brands for the stock management user group. There is one quality requirement for purchasing user group. The quality requirement is modifiability. The user of this user group will need to be able to add in new equipment information into the database. For example, brand X information will be saved into the stock database. Purchasing user group is the low level user group in Al-Seraj Hire Firm. This is because user in this user group will need to be able to add in new equipment in the stock database. Limitation There are three limitations or design flaw in Al-Seraj Hire Firm system that is designed. The first limitation is only five user group can use the system. This is because the system is designed to be able to allow only five user groups to be using this system. The second limitation is online ordering transactions are not available. This is because the system is not designed to be to have a shopping cart. The third limitation is system doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t allow add in new membership categories. This is because the system is not design to allow user to add in new membership categories. The limitation can be changed in the future by adding new function in the system. Parallel Changeover Changeover is a method that is used to implement or install the system into an existing or new server. There are four types of changeover; direct changeover, parallel changeover, pilot changeover and phases changeover. The changeover method that can fulfil the requirement of Al-Seraj Hire Firm is parallel changeover. Less expensive. Lower risk of error or failures. The first part is stock management module and purchasing module. The second last part is customer account and sales and marketing. In the period of implementation, user acceptance test is given to check whether the system fulfil their requirement. Training is given if the system is accepted by the user.

Fundamental Concepts Of Ethernet Technology Information Technology Essay

Fundamental Concepts Of Ethernet Technology Information Technology Essay In this module, we will discuss the fundamental concepts of networking, Ethernet technology, and data transmission in Ethernet networks. Module Objectives At the end of this module, you will be able to: Explain the seven network layers as defined by the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference model Describe, at a high level, the history of Ethernet List physical layer characteristics of Ethernet Explain the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex transmission in an Ethernet network Describe the structure of an Ethernet frame Explain how networks can be extended and segmented using various Ethernet devices, including hubs and switches Describe how frames are forwarded in an Ethernet network Explain, at a high level, how Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) function Network Fundamentals This section provides a brief overview of Local Area Network (LAN) technology. We will discuss LAN architecture from a functional perspective. A network is commonly divided into seven functional layers referred to as the OSI Reference model. In addition, we will briefly discuss the use of addressing in LANs. Instructor Note Point out that this section only touches briefly on LAN concepts, and students may want to explore LAN technology in more depth on their own. Network Layers A complete LAN implementation involves a number of functions that, in combination, enable devices to communicate over a network. To understand how Ethernet fits into this overall set of functions, we can use the OSI Reference model. The OSI Reference model was developed in 1984 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Instructor Note You can introduce the discussion of the OSI Reference model by comparing analysis of the model to peeling an onion. Shown in Figure 1-1, the OSI Reference model defines seven functional layers that process data when data is transmitted over a network. When devices communicate over a network, data travels through some or all of the seven functional layers. The figure shows data being transmitted from Station A, the source, to Station B, the destination. The transmission begins at the Application layer. As data (referred to as the payload) is transmitted by Station A down through the layers, each layer adds its overhead information to the data from the layer above. (The process of packaging layer-specific overhead with the payload is referred to as encapsulation discussed later in this course.) Upon reaching the Physical layer, the data is placed on the physical media for transmission. The receiving device reverses the process, unpackaging the contents layer by layer, thus allowing each layer to effectively communicate with its peer layer. Ethernet operates at Layer 2, the Data Link layer. Using Figure 1-1 as a reference, we will briefly discuss what occurs at each layer. Figure 1-1: The OSI Reference Model Application Layer The Application layer, Layer 7 (L7), is responsible for interacting with the software applications that send data to another device. These interactions are governed by Application layer protocols, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Presentation Layer The Presentation layer, Layer 6 (L6), performs data translation, compression, and encryption. Data translation is required when two different types of devices are connected to each other, and both use different ways to represent the data. Compression is required to increase the transmission flow of data. Encryption is required to secure data as it moves to the lower layers of the OSI Reference model. Session Layer The Session layer, Layer 5 (L5), is responsible for creating, maintaining, and terminating communication among devices. A session is a logical link created between two software application processes to enable them to transmit data to each other for a period of time. Logical links are discussed later in this course. Transport Layer The Transport layer, Layer 4 (L4), is responsible for reliable arrival of messages and provides error checking mechanisms and data flow controls. The Transport layer also performs multiplexing to ensure that the data from various applications is transported using the same transmission channel. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link, such as a fiber optic cable. The data flow through the Transport layer is governed by transmission protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which are beyond the scope of this course. Network Layer The Network layer, Layer 3 (L3), is responsible for moving data across interconnected networks by comparing the L3 source address with the L3 destination address. The Network layer encapsulates the data received by higher layers to create packets. The word packet is commonly used when referring to data in the Network layer. The Network layer is also responsible for fragmentation and reassembly of packets. Data Link Layer The Data Link layer, Layer 2 (L2), responds to requests sent by the Network layer and sends service requests to the Physical layer. The Data Link layer is responsible for defining the physical addressing, establishing logical links among local devices, sequencing of frames, and error detection. The Ethernet frame is a digital data transmission unit on Layer 2. The word frame is commonly used when referring to data in the Data Link layer. The Data Link layer has been subdivided into two sub-layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC). LLC, defined in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.2 specification, manages communications among devices over a link. LLC supports both connection-oriented (physical, ex an Ethernet switch) and connectionless (wireless, ex a wireless router) services. The MAC sub-level manages Ethernet frame assembly and dissembly, failure recovery, as well as access to, and routing for, the physical media. This will be discussed in more detail in this module. Physical Layer The Physical layer, Layer 1 (L1), performs hardware-specific, electrical, and mechanical operations for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the link among communicating network systems. The Physical layer is responsible for transmitting the data as raw bits over the transmission media. Now that we have reviewed the OSI Reference model, lets discuss addressing of network devices. Stations Network devices that operate at the Data Link layer or higher are referred to as stations. Stations are classified as either end stations or intermediate stations. End stations run end-user applications and are the source or final destination of data transmitted over a network. Intermediate stations relay information across the network between end stations. A characteristic of stations is that they are addressable. In the next section, we discuss the specifics of addressing. Addressing Each device in an Ethernet network is assigned an address that is used to connect with other devices in the network. This address is referred to as the MAC address and is typically a permanent address assigned by the device manufacturer. Addressing is used in the network to identify the source station and the destination station or stations of transmitted data. As shown in Figure 1-2, the MAC address consists of 48 bits (6 bytes), typically expressed as colon-separated, hexadecimal pairs. Figure 1-2: MAC Address Structure The MAC address consists of the following: Individual / Group (I/G) Bit: For destination address, if the I/G bit = 0, the destination of the frame is a single station. This is referred to as a unicast address. If the I/G bit = 1, the destination is a group of stations. This is referred to as a multicast address. In source addresses, the I/G bit = 1. Universal / Local (U/L) Bit: The U/L bit identifies whether the MAC address is universally unique (U/L bit = 0) or only unique in the LAN in which it is located. Vendor-assigned MAC addresses are always universally unique. A locally unique MAC address is assigned by the network administrator. Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI): This typically identifies the network equipment manufacturer. OUIs are assigned to organizations by the IEEE. To locate information on the OUI associated with a manufacturer go to the following website: http://standards.ieee.org/regauth/oui/index.shtml Vendor-Assigned Bits: These bits are assigned by the vendor to uniquely identify a specific device. Following is an example of a MAC address: 00:1B:38:7C:BE:66 Later in this module, we discuss how MAC addresses are used in Ethernet networks. Introduction to Ethernet Ethernet is an internationally-accepted, standardized LAN technology. It is one of the simplest and most cost-effective LAN networking technologies in use today. Ethernet has grown through the development of a set of standards that define how data is transferred among computer networking devices. Although several other networking methods are used to implement LANs, Ethernet remains the most common method in use today. While Ethernet has emerged as the most common LAN technology for a variety of reasons, the primary reasons include the following: Ethernet is less expensive than other networking options. Easy is easy to install and provision the various components. Ethernet is faster and more robust than the other LAN technologies. Ethernet allows for an efficient and flexible network implementation. History of Ethernet Ethernet was invented in 1973 by Bob Metcalfe and David Boggs at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Ethernet was originally designed as a high-speed LAN technology for connecting Xerox Palo Alto graphical computing systems and high-speed laser printers. In 1979, Xerox ® began work with Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and Intel ® to develop a standardized, commercial version of Ethernet. This partnership of DEC, Intel, and Xerox (DIX) developed Ethernet Version 1.0, also known as DIX80. Further refinements resulted in Ethernet Version 2, or DIX82, which is still in use today. Project 802 In 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed Project 802 to create an international standard for LANs. Due to the complexity of the technology and the emergence of competing LAN technologies and physical media, five working groups were initially formed. Each working group developed standards for a particular area of LAN technology. The initial working groups consisted of the following: IEEE 802.1: Overview, Architecture, Internetworking, and Management IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control IEEE 802.3: Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Media Access Control (MAC) IEEE 802.4: Token Bus MAC and Physical (PHY) IEEE 802.5: Token Ring MAC and PHY Additional working groups have since been added to address other areas of LAN technology. The standards developed by these working groups are discussed as we move through this course. However, lets look at IEEE 802.3, which addresses standards specific to Ethernet. IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.3 was published in 1985 and is now supported with a series of supplements covering new features and capabilities. Like all IEEE standards, the contents of supplements are added to the standard when it is revised. Now adopted by almost all computer vendors, IEEE 802.3 consists of standards for three basic elements: The physical media (fiber or copper) used to transport Ethernet signals over a network MAC rules that enable devices connected to the same transmission media to share the transmission channel Format of the Ethernet frame, which consists of a standardized set of frame fields We will discuss the transmission media used in Ethernet networks, the MAC rules, and the Ethernet frame later in this module. Instructor Note Tell the class that we will discuss the transmission media used in Ethernet networks, the MAC rules, and the Ethernet frame later in this module. You can briefly explain the differences among LANs, WANs, and MANs to the students. Ethernet Transmission Fundamentals This section covers basic fundamentals of data transmission on Ethernet networks. Specifically, we will cover the following topics: Physical layer characteristics Communication modes Ethernet frames Repeaters and hubs Ethernet bridges and switches Multilayer switches and routers Ethernet Virtual LANs (VLANs) Ethernet beyond the LAN Physical Layer Characteristics Our discussion of physical layer characteristics covers both the physical media over which network communications flow and the rate at which communications occur. In fact, the nomenclature for the various types of Ethernet is based on both of these characteristics. The Ethernet type is referred to in the following format: n-BASE-phy, such as 10BASE-T where: n is the data rate in megabits per second (Mbps). BASE indicates that the media is dedicated to only Ethernet services. phy is a code assigned to a specific type of media. A variety of media and transmission rates are available for Ethernet networks. The major media types used today are: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) copper cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) copper cable Fiber optic cables The IEEE 802.3 standard identifies the following types of media for an Ethernet connection: 10BASE2: Defined in IEEE 802.3a, 10BASE2 Ethernet uses thin wire coaxial cable. It allows cable runs of up to 185 meters (607 feet). A maximum of 30 workstations can be supported on a single segment. This Ethernet type is no longer in use for new installations. 10BASE-T: Defined in IEEE 802.3i, 10BASE-T uses UTP copper cable and RJ-45 connectors to connect devices to an Ethernet LAN. The RJ-45 is a very common 8-pin connector. Fast Ethernet: Defined in IEEE 802.3u, Fast Ethernet is used for transmission at a rate of 100 Mbps. It includes 100BASE-TX, which uses UTP copper cable. With this type of cable, each segment can run up to 100 meters (328 feet). Another media option specified in this standard is 100BASE-FX, which uses optical fiber supporting data rates of up to 100 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet (GbE): Defined in IEEE 802.3z, GbE uses fiber for transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps. GbE includes 1000BASE-SX for transmission over Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF), and 1000BASE-LX for transmission over Single-Mode Fiber (SMF). The differences between Multi-Mode and Single-Mode are the physical makeup of the fiber itself and the light source that is normally used multi-mode normally uses an LED while single-mode uses a laser. Multi-mode has limited distance capability when compared to single-mode. 1000BASE-T: Defined in IEEE 802.3ab, 1000BASE-T provides GbE service over twisted pair copper cable. 10 GbE: Defined in IEEE 802.3ae, 10 GbE transmits Ethernet frames at data rates up to 10 Gbps. Communication Modes Ethernet can operate in either of two communication modes, half-duplex or full-duplex. Ethernet MAC establishes procedures that all devices sharing a communication channel must follow. Half-duplex mode is used when devices on a network share a communication channel. Full-duplex mode is used when devices have no contention from other devices on a network connection. Lets discuss each of these modes in more detail. Half-Duplex Mode As shown in Figure 1-3, a device operating in half-duplex mode can send or receive data but cannot do both at the same time. Originally, as specified in the DIX80 standard, Ethernet only supported half-duplex operation. Figure 1-3: Half-Duplex Transmission Half-duplex Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD protocol to control media access in shared media LANs. With CSMA/CD, devices can share media in an orderly way. Devices that contend for shared media on a LAN are members of the same collision domain. In a collision domain, a data collision occurs when two devices on the LAN transmit data at the same time. The CSMA/CD protocol enables recovery from data collisions. With CSMA/CD, a device that has data to transmit performs carrier sense. Carrier sense is the ability of a device to monitor the transmission media for the presence of any data transmission. If the device detects that another device is using the transmission media, the device waits for the transmission to end. When the device detects that the transmission media is not being used, the device starts transmitting data. Figure 1-4 shows how CSMA/CD handles a data collision. When a collision occurs, the transmitting device stops the transmission and sends a jamming signal to all other devices to indicate the collision. After sending the jamming signal, each device waits for a random period of time, with each device generating its own time to wait, and then begins transmitting again. Figure 1-4: CSMA/CD Operation Full-Duplex Mode In the full-duplex communication mode, a device can send and receive data at the same time as shown in Figure 1-5. In this mode, the device must be connected directly to another device using a Point-to-Point (P2P) link that supports independent transmit and receive paths. (P2P is discussed later in this course.) Figure 1-5: Full-Duplex Transmission Full-duplex operation is restricted to links meeting the following criteria: The transmission media must support the simultaneous sending and receiving of data. Twisted pair and fiber cables are capable of supporting full-duplex transmission mode. These include Fast Ethernet, GbE, and 10 GbE transmission media. The connection can be a P2P link connecting only two devices, or multiple devices can be connected to each other through an Ethernet switch. The link between both devices needs to be capable of, and configured for, full-duplex operation. CSMA/CD is not used for full-duplex communications because there is no possibility of a data collision. And, since each device can both send and receive data at the same time, the aggregate throughput of the link is doubled. (Throughput is the amount of data that can be transmitted over a certain period of time.) Ethernet Frames Lets discuss another fundamental aspect of Ethernet transmission the Ethernet frame. The Ethernet frame is used to exchange data between two Data Link layer points via a direct physical or logical link in an Ethernet LAN. The minimum size of an Ethernet frame is 64 bytes. Originally, the maximum size for a standard Ethernet frame was 1518 bytes; however, it is now possible that an Ethernet frame can be as large as 10,000 bytes (referred to as a jumbo frame). As shown in Figure 1-6, an Ethernet frame consists of the following fields: (NOTE: The first two fields are added/stripped at Layer 1 and are not counted as part of the 1518 byte standard frame.) Preamble: This 7-byte field establishes bit synchronization with the sequence of 10101010 in each byte. Start Frame Delimiter: This 1-byte field indicates the start of the frame at the next byte using a bit sequence of 10101011. Destination MAC Address: This field contains the MAC hardware address of the Ethernet frames destination. Source MAC Address: This field contains the MAC hardware address of the device sending the frame. Type / Length: The specific use of this field depends on how the frame was encapsulated. When type-encapsulation is used, the field identifies the nature of the client protocol running above the Ethernet. When using length-encapsulation, this field indicated the number of bytes in the Data field. The IEEE maintains a list of accepted values for this field, the list may be viewed at: http://standards.ieee.org/regauth/ethertype/ Data: This field contains the data or payload that has been sent down from Layer 3 for packaging to Layer 2. Frame Check Sequence (FCS): This 32-bit field is used for checking the Ethernet frame for errors in bit transmission. FCS is also known as Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC). Figure 1-6: Ethernet Frame Now that we have defined the basic structure of an Ethernet frame, lets see how we can use the destination MAC address to create three different types of Ethernet frames. Unicast Frames An Ethernet frame intended for a single device on the network is a unicast frame. An example is shown in Figure 1-7. In this example, Station A is transmitting an FTP request to a specific FTP server on the network. The destination MAC address in the frames being sent for this request is the MAC address assigned to the FTP server by its manufacturer. Therefore, these frames are unicast frames, only intended specifically for one device on the network, the FTP server. Figure 1-7: Unicast Frame Transmission Multicast Frames Multicast is a mechanism that provides the ability to send frames to a specific group of devices on a network one sender to all who are set to receive. This is done by setting a frames destination MAC address to a multicast address assigned by a higher level protocol or application. However, devices must be enabled to receive frames with this multicast address. An example of multicast frames is shown in Figure 1-8. In this example, the video server is transmitting the same video channel, via an Ethernet switch, to a group of video display devices on the network. The destination MAC address is the multicast address assigned by the video application. The receiving stations are configured to accept Ethernet frames with this multicast address. Figure 1-8: Multicast Frame Transmission Broadcast Frames Broadcasting is a mechanism for sending data in broadcast frames to all the devices in a broadcast domain. A broadcast domain is defined as a set of devices that can communicate with each other at the Data Link layer. Therefore, in a network that does not include higher layer devices, all of the network devices are in the same broadcast domain. In broadcast frames, the hexadecimal destination MAC address is always ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff which, in binary notation, is a series of 48 bits, each set to a value of 1. All devices in the broadcast domain recognize and accept frames with this destination MAC address. Instructor Note Be sure that students understand hexadecimal vs. binary notation, but do not take this topic beyond the scope of this course. Since broadcasting reaches all devices within a broadcast domain, Ethernet can use this capability to perform various device setup and control functions. This is a very useful feature, allowing implementation and growth of a LAN with little intervention from a network administrator. Figure 1-9 shows a broadcast transmission in which Station A is transmitting frames with this broadcast destination MAC address. All devices in the same broadcast domain as Station A receive and process the broadcast frames. Figure 1-9: Broadcast Frame Now that we have covered some basic concepts for LANs and Ethernet transmission, lets continue by discussing how devices on Ethernet LANs are connected. Instructor Note Check the existing knowledge of students on the differences among switches, hubs, routers, and gateways. Initiate a discussion around the differences among these devices and their suitability to different applications. Repeaters and Hubs A very simple LAN topology consists of network devices that are all connected directly to a shared medium as shown in Figure 1-10. If we need to connect more devices to the LAN, we are limited by the characteristics of the shared media. Devices such as repeaters and hubs can be used to overcome distance limitations of the media, allowing the reach of the network to be extended. Figure 1-10: Simple LAN Topology Repeaters are Physical layer devices that regenerate a signal, which effectively allows the network segment to extend a greater distance. As shown in Figure 1-11, we can use the additional segment length to add more devices to the LAN. Keep in mind that devices added through implementation of repeaters are still in the same collision domain as the original devices. This results in more contention for access to the shared transmission media. Such devices are in little use today. Figure 1-11: LAN Extended with a Repeater As shown in Figure 1-12, hubs can also be used to extend the distance of a LAN segment. Hubs are Layer 1 (physical) devices. The advantage of a hub versus a repeater is that hubs provide more ports. Increased contention for media access still exists since the additional devices connected to the hub(s) are still in the same collision domain. Figure 1-12: LAN Extended with a Hub Ethernet Bridges and Switches Ethernet bridges and switches are Layer 2 (Data Link) devices that provide another option for extending the distance and broadcast domain of a network. Unlike repeaters and hubs, bridges and switches keep the collision domains of connected LAN segments isolated from each other as shown in Figure 1-13. Therefore, the devices in one segment do not contend with devices in another segment for media access. Figure 1-13: LAN Extended with an Ethernet Switch Frame Forwarding with Ethernet Switches As Layer 2 devices, Ethernet switches make frame-forwarding decisions based on source and destination MAC addresses. One of the processes used in making these decisions is MAC learning. To make efficient use of the data pathways that are dynamically cross connected within an Ethernet switch, the switch keeps track of the location of as many active devices as its design allows. When an Ethernet frame ingresses (enters) a switch, the switch inspects the frames source address to learn the location of the sender and inspects the destination address to learn the location of the recipient. This knowledge is kept in a MAC address table. Figure 1-14 shows an example of a MAC address table. As long as the sender remains connected to the same physical port that their MAC address was learned on, the switch will know which port to forward frames to that are destined for that particular senders address. Figure 1-14: MAC Address Table MAC address information stored in a MAC address table is not retained indefinitely. Each entry is time stamped; and if no activity is sensed for a period of time, referred to as an aging period, the inactive entry is removed. This is done so that only active devices occupy space in the table. This keeps the MAC address table from overloading and facilitates address lookup. The default aging period is typically five minutes. Figure 1-15 shows how an Ethernet switch forwards frames based on entries in the MAC address table. The forwarding process consists of the following steps: Inspect the incoming frames MAC destination address: If the MAC destination address is a broadcast address, flood it out all ports within the broadcast domain. If the MAC destination address is a unicast address, look for it in the MAC address table. If the address is found, forward the frame on the egress (exit) port where the NE knows the device can be reached. If not, flood it. Flooding allows communication even when MAC destination addresses are unknown. Along with multicast, which is actually a large set of special-purpose MAC addresses, network traffic can be directed to any number of devices on a network. Inspect the incoming frames MAC source address: If the MAC source address is already in the MAC address table, update the aging timer. This is an active device on the port through which it is connected. If the MAC source address is not currently in the MAC address table, add it in the list and set the aging timer. This is also an active device. Periodically check for MAC address table entries that have expired. These are no longer active devices on the port on which they were learned, and these table entries are removed. If a device is moved from one port to another, the device becomes active on the new ports MAC table. This is referred to as MAC motion. An Ethernet switch will purposely filter (drop) certain frames. Whether a frame is dropped or forwarded can depend on the switch configuration, but normal switch behavior drops any frame containing a destination address that the switch knows can be reached through the same port where the frame was received. This is done to prevent a device from receiving duplicate frames. Figure 1-15: Frame-Forwarding Process A MAC Learning and Broadcast Domain Analogy Mail Delivery Consider this following analogy to understand the concept of MAC learning and broadcast domain: Consider a situation where your friend wants to send you a birthday party invitation (the invitation represents an Ethernet frame). You and your friend live on the same street (the street represents a broadcast domain). However, there is a problem. Your friend does not know your house address so she writes her return (source) address on the birthday party invitation card and writes the street name as your (destination) address. Your friend drops the envelope in her mail box (your friends mail box represents a LAN) as shown in Figure 1-16. Figure 1-16: Broadcast Analogy, Part 1 When the mail carrier picks up the mail, he notices that the destination address is unknown. The postman goes to a copier and makes enough copies so that he can deliver one copy to each possible destination address on the street. This would mean every house on the street, except for your friends house, will get a copy of the invitation. After the postman has delivered the envelopes to all the houses (this process is analogous to a broadcast transmission), you receive the birthday party invitation and recognize your name on the envelope. So, you open the envelope and read the invitation. Figure 1-17: Broadcast Analogy, Part 2 All of your neighbors receive copies of the same envelope, but they see that the name is not theirs so they simply discard it. After reading the invitation, you send a thank you card back to your friend with your friends address; and you include a return (source) address. The postman sees that this envelope has a specific destination address so it can be delivered without broadcasting. It also has a source address, so the postman now knows your address. It is now possible to exchange mail directly with your friend without broadcasting letters to your neighbors. In other words, you can communicate using unicast transmission. If you and your friend were on different streets (broadcast domains), you would have never received your invitation card; and communication could have never occurred. Multilayer Switches and Routers In this course, our discussion of switching focuses on switching at the Data Link level since Ethernet is a Layer 2 technology. However, switching can also be